Ophthalmology is the branch of medicine which deals with the diseases and surgery of the visual pathways, including the eye, brain, and areas surrounding the eye, such as the lacrimal system and eyelids. The term ophthalmologist is an eye specialist for medical and surgical problems. Since ophthalmologists perform operations on eyes, they considered both a surgical and medical specialty.
The word ophthalmology comes from the Greek roots ophthalmos meaning eye and logos meaning word, thought or discourse; ophthalmology literally means "the science of eyes". As a discipline, it applies to animal eyes also, since the differences from human practice are surprisingly minor and are related mainly to differences in anatomy or prevalence, not differences in disease processes. However, veterinary medicine is regulated separately in many countries and states/provinces resulting in few ophthalmologists treating both humans and animals.
History
The eye, including its structure and mechanism, has fascinated scientists and the public in general since ancient times. The majority of all input to the brain comes from vision. Many of the expressions in the English language that mean to understand are equivalent vision terms. "I see", to mean I understand.
Many patients when told that they may have an eye problem will be more concerned about diseases that affect vision than other, more lethal diseases[citation needed]. Being deprived of sight can have a devastating effect on the psyche, as well as economic and social effects, as many blind individuals require significant assistance with activities of daily living and are often unable to continue gainful employment previously held while seeing[citation needed].
The maintenance of ocular health and correction of eye problems that decrease vision contribute greatly to the ability to appreciate the longer lifespan that all of medicine continues to allow. Given the importance of vision to quality of life, many ophthalmologists consider their job to be rewarding, as they are often able to restore or improve a patient's sight. As detailed below, advances in diagnosis and treatment of disease, and improved surgical techniques have extended our abilities to restore vision like never before.
Sushruta
Sushruta wrote Sushruta Samhita in about fifth Century BCE in India. He described about 72 ocular diseases as well as several ophthalmological surgical instruments and techniques. Sushruta has been described as the first Indian cataract surgeon.[1][2] Arab scientists are some of the earliest to have written about and drawn the anatomy of the eye—the earliest known diagram being in Hunain ibn Is-hâq's Book of the Ten Treatises on the Eye. Earlier manuscripts exist which refer to diagrams which are not known to have survived. Current knowledge of the Græco-Roman understanding of the eye is limited, as many manuscripts lacked diagrams. In fact, there are very few Græco-Roman diagrams of the eye still in existence. Thus, it is not clear to which structures the texts refer, and what purpose they were thought to have.
Pre-Hippocrates
The pre-Hippocratics largely based their anatomical conceptions of the eye on speculation, rather than empiricism. They recognized the sclera and transparent cornea running flushly as the outer coating of the eye, with an inner layer with pupil, and a fluid at the centre. It was believed, by Alcamaeon and others, that this fluid was the medium of vision and flowed from the eye to the brain via a tube. Aristotle advanced such ideas with empiricism. He dissected the eyes of animals, and discovering three layers (not two), found that the fluid was of a constant consistency with the lens forming (or congealing) after death, and the surrounding layers were seen to be juxtaposed. He, and his contemporaries, further put forth the existence of three tubes leading from the eye, not one. One tube from each eye met within the skull.
Alexandrian studies
Alexandrian studies extensively contributed to knowledge of the eye. Aëtius tells us that Herophilus dedicated an entire study to the eye which no longer exists. In fact, no manuscripts from the region and time are known to have survived, leading us to rely on Celsius' account—which is seen as a confused account written by a man who did not know the subject matter. From Celsius it is known that the lens had been recognised, and they no longer saw a fluid flowing to the brain through some hollow tube, but likely a continuation of layers of tissue into the brain. Celsius failed to recognise the retina's role, and did not think it was the tissue that continued into the brain.
Ophthalmic surgery in Great Britain
The first ophthalmic surgeon in Great Britain was John Freke, appointed to the position by the Governors of St Bartholomew's Hospital in 1727, but the establishment of the first dedicated ophthalmic hospital in 1805 — now called Moorfields Eye Hospital in London, England was a transforming event in modern ophthalmology. Clinical developments at Moorfields and the founding of the Institute of Ophthalmology by Sir Stewart Duke-Elder established the site as the largest eye hospital in the world and a nexus for ophthalmic research.
Friday, July 31, 2009
fever
Fever
See complete list of charts.
A fever is defined as a temperature 1° or more above the normal 98.6°. Minor infections may cause mild or short-term temperature elevations. Temperatures of 103° and above are considered high and can signal a potentially dangerous infection. Contact your doctor in case of a high fever or if a lower fever doesn't resolve with simple treatments.
SYMPTOMS DIAGNOSIS SELF-CARE
1. Is the person an infant or child? See "Fever In Infants and Children."
2. Does your fever come and go and does your temperature stay between 97° and 102°? Go to Question 8.*
3. Have you had a fever for weeks along with tiredness and a sore throat?
You may have MONONUCLEOSIS. See your doctor.
4. Do you have a sore throat, a dry cough, tiredness, mild headaches or muscle aches? You may have a COLD or FLU. Get plenty of rest and drink lots of fluids. Over-the-counter- medicines may help relieve your symptoms. See your doctor if your symptoms become severe. Prevent the flu by getting the flu vaccine in the fall.
5. Do you have aches, chills, nausea, vomiting, cramps or watery diarrhea? You may have GASTROENTERITIS, an intestinal infection commonly called the STOMACH FLU. Get plenty of rest. Stop eating and drinking for a few hours to let your stomach settle. Ease back into eating gradually and start with bland foods. Take small, frequent sips of water or clear liquids to avoid dehydration. See your doctor if you have bloody diarrhea, if you've been vomiting for more than 2 days or if you're vomiting blood.
6. Are you short of breath and do you have a cough that produces yellow, green or tan mucus? You may have BRONCHITIS, or a more serious infection, such as PNEUMONIA. Get plenty of rest, drink lots of fluids and take an over-the-counter cough medicine. Bronchitis usually clears on its own in a few days. If your symptoms persist, if you have a high fever or are coughing up blood, see your doctor.
7. Have you lost weight unintentionally and do you have a fever that comes and goes, night sweats or swollen lymph nodes? You may have a serious infection, such as TUBERCULOSIS or AIDS. See your doctor right away.
*8. Do you have a fever between 101° and 103°? Go to Question 15.**
9. Do you have a sore throat and headache? You may have a bacterial infection, such as STREP THROAT. Get plenty of rest, drink lots of fluids and treat yourself with cold and fever-reducing medicines. If you don't feel better in 48 hours, see your doctor. A quick test can determine whether you have strep throat. Antibiotics are effective in treating the bacteria that causes this infection.
10. Do you have stomach pain, nausea and/or vomiting? You may have a severe medical problem, such as APPENDICITIS, DIVERTICULITIS, PANCREATITIS, HEPATITIS or COLITIS. EMERGENCY
See your doctor or go to the emergency room right away.
11. Do you have a rash that's red, tender and warm or a red streak on your arm or leg? You may have an infection of the skin or lymph system, such as CELLULITIS or LYMPHANGITIS. Both conditions need to be treated with antibiotics. See your doctor right away.
12. Do you have an earache? You may have a middle ear infection (OTITIS MEDIA) or an outer ear infection (SWIMMER'S EAR or OTITIS EXTERNA). These infections could lead to complications if not treated. See your doctor right away.
13. Have you been outside under high temperatures and are you feeling nauseous or faint? You may have HEAT EXHAUSTION. Drink cool liquids and rest in a cool location. Lay down and elevate your legs slightly. Recheck your temperature often until it has returned to normal. If your temperature goes higher, have someone take you to the emergency room.
14. Have you recently started taking a new medicine? Your fever may be a side effect of your MEDICINE. Call your doctor.
**15. Is your temperature consistently above 103°? Go to conclusion.***
16. Are you short of breath or are you coughing up mucus or blood? You may have PNEUMONIA or PULMONARY EMBOLUS. See your doctor right away.
17. Are you experiencing pain or burning when you urinate, or do you have back pain? You may have PYELONEPHRITIS, a kidney infection. See your doctor right away.
18. Do you have a severe headache, neck stiffness, drowiness and vomiting, and are your eyes sensitive to light? You may have MENINGITIS, an inflammation of the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. EMERGENCY
See your doctor or go to the emergency room right away.
19. Have you been outside in extremely hot weather, and are you hot but not sweating, possibly feeling faint or having some confusion? You may have HEATSTROKE.
EMERGENCY
Have someone take you to the emergency room right away. Get out of the sun and go somewhere shady or air-conditioned.
*** For more information, please talk to your doctor. If you think the problem is serious, call your doctor right away.
This tool has been reviewed by doctors and is for general educational purposes only. It is not a substitute for medical advice. The information in this tool should not be relied upon to make decisions about your health. Always consult your family doctor with questions about your individual condition(s) and/or circumstances. Source: American Academy of Family Physicians. Family Health & Medical Guide.
See complete list of charts.
A fever is defined as a temperature 1° or more above the normal 98.6°. Minor infections may cause mild or short-term temperature elevations. Temperatures of 103° and above are considered high and can signal a potentially dangerous infection. Contact your doctor in case of a high fever or if a lower fever doesn't resolve with simple treatments.
SYMPTOMS DIAGNOSIS SELF-CARE
1. Is the person an infant or child? See "Fever In Infants and Children."
2. Does your fever come and go and does your temperature stay between 97° and 102°? Go to Question 8.*
3. Have you had a fever for weeks along with tiredness and a sore throat?
You may have MONONUCLEOSIS. See your doctor.
4. Do you have a sore throat, a dry cough, tiredness, mild headaches or muscle aches? You may have a COLD or FLU. Get plenty of rest and drink lots of fluids. Over-the-counter- medicines may help relieve your symptoms. See your doctor if your symptoms become severe. Prevent the flu by getting the flu vaccine in the fall.
5. Do you have aches, chills, nausea, vomiting, cramps or watery diarrhea? You may have GASTROENTERITIS, an intestinal infection commonly called the STOMACH FLU. Get plenty of rest. Stop eating and drinking for a few hours to let your stomach settle. Ease back into eating gradually and start with bland foods. Take small, frequent sips of water or clear liquids to avoid dehydration. See your doctor if you have bloody diarrhea, if you've been vomiting for more than 2 days or if you're vomiting blood.
6. Are you short of breath and do you have a cough that produces yellow, green or tan mucus? You may have BRONCHITIS, or a more serious infection, such as PNEUMONIA. Get plenty of rest, drink lots of fluids and take an over-the-counter cough medicine. Bronchitis usually clears on its own in a few days. If your symptoms persist, if you have a high fever or are coughing up blood, see your doctor.
7. Have you lost weight unintentionally and do you have a fever that comes and goes, night sweats or swollen lymph nodes? You may have a serious infection, such as TUBERCULOSIS or AIDS. See your doctor right away.
*8. Do you have a fever between 101° and 103°? Go to Question 15.**
9. Do you have a sore throat and headache? You may have a bacterial infection, such as STREP THROAT. Get plenty of rest, drink lots of fluids and treat yourself with cold and fever-reducing medicines. If you don't feel better in 48 hours, see your doctor. A quick test can determine whether you have strep throat. Antibiotics are effective in treating the bacteria that causes this infection.
10. Do you have stomach pain, nausea and/or vomiting? You may have a severe medical problem, such as APPENDICITIS, DIVERTICULITIS, PANCREATITIS, HEPATITIS or COLITIS. EMERGENCY
See your doctor or go to the emergency room right away.
11. Do you have a rash that's red, tender and warm or a red streak on your arm or leg? You may have an infection of the skin or lymph system, such as CELLULITIS or LYMPHANGITIS. Both conditions need to be treated with antibiotics. See your doctor right away.
12. Do you have an earache? You may have a middle ear infection (OTITIS MEDIA) or an outer ear infection (SWIMMER'S EAR or OTITIS EXTERNA). These infections could lead to complications if not treated. See your doctor right away.
13. Have you been outside under high temperatures and are you feeling nauseous or faint? You may have HEAT EXHAUSTION. Drink cool liquids and rest in a cool location. Lay down and elevate your legs slightly. Recheck your temperature often until it has returned to normal. If your temperature goes higher, have someone take you to the emergency room.
14. Have you recently started taking a new medicine? Your fever may be a side effect of your MEDICINE. Call your doctor.
**15. Is your temperature consistently above 103°? Go to conclusion.***
16. Are you short of breath or are you coughing up mucus or blood? You may have PNEUMONIA or PULMONARY EMBOLUS. See your doctor right away.
17. Are you experiencing pain or burning when you urinate, or do you have back pain? You may have PYELONEPHRITIS, a kidney infection. See your doctor right away.
18. Do you have a severe headache, neck stiffness, drowiness and vomiting, and are your eyes sensitive to light? You may have MENINGITIS, an inflammation of the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. EMERGENCY
See your doctor or go to the emergency room right away.
19. Have you been outside in extremely hot weather, and are you hot but not sweating, possibly feeling faint or having some confusion? You may have HEATSTROKE.
EMERGENCY
Have someone take you to the emergency room right away. Get out of the sun and go somewhere shady or air-conditioned.
*** For more information, please talk to your doctor. If you think the problem is serious, call your doctor right away.
This tool has been reviewed by doctors and is for general educational purposes only. It is not a substitute for medical advice. The information in this tool should not be relied upon to make decisions about your health. Always consult your family doctor with questions about your individual condition(s) and/or circumstances. Source: American Academy of Family Physicians. Family Health & Medical Guide.
namami dhanwanthrim adhi dhavam
namami dhanwanthari adhi devam surasure vandhitha padha padhmam loke jwaranara mrithu nasham dhadharamesham vivadhaushadheenam
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